Introduction

Green jobs, green growth and green economy have become popular in the early twenty-­first­century.­They­were­used­in­the­context­of­sustainable­development­ and­poverty­eradication.­The­green­economy­was­one­of­the­specific­themes­of­ the­United­Nations­Conference­on­Sustainable­Development­held­in­Rio­in­2012­ (the­so­called­Rio+20­Conference),­thus­it­has­received­significant­international­ attention. ­ The­ declarations­ that­ followed­ from­ international­ institutions,­ scientific­ studies,­papers­and­books­of­ renowned­authors­ indicated­ that­a­way­out­of­ the­ global­economic­crisis­through­preserving­the­environment­can­be­found­in­green­ growth.­However,­implementation­is­far­from­complete. ­ From­the­global­process­of­greening­national­economies,­the­third­industrial­ revolution,­ the­ ‘green­ revolution’,­was­ expected,­which­would­ save­ the­ planet­ and­bring­well-­being­to­all­people. ­ Green­jobs­have­been­considered­as­a­solution­for­new­employment,­the­way­ out­of­environmental,­economic­and­social­crisis,­and­as­a­specific­answer­to­the­ jobless­ growth.­ The­ green­ economy­was­ expected­ to­ support­ the­ fight­ against­ climate change, environmental degradation and poverty; and green growth was expected­to­reduce­the­gap­between­developed­and­developing­countries­and­to­ ensure­sustainable­development. ­ Still,­ there­ is­ a­ vivid­ debate­ regarding­whether­ green­ jobs­ are­ drivers­ of­ or­ obstacles­to­economic­growth­and­whether­they­are­too­expensive­to­create.­This­ debate­is­reflected­in­popular­culture,1 but tends to be general in nature and not sufficiently­ supported­ by­ numbers.­ The­main­ objective­ of­ this­ book­ is­ to­ add­ some numbers to the debate and to outline the answers to the questions regarding to­what­extent­the­expectations­of­greening­are­achievable­and­feasible,­and/or­to­ what­extent­is­greening­a­new­marketing­niche,­creating­a­new­market­for­new­ products­and­new­consumption. ­ The­ book­ builds­ on­ the­ results­ of­ our­ previous­ research­ on­ environmental­ finance­and­development.2­It­shows,­first,­that­significant­investments­are­needed­ to­protect­air,­water­and­nature­(biodiversity),­and­to­deal­with­waste­and­climate­ change;­and­ second,­ that­ those­ investments­cannot­be­financed­ solely­on­commercial­ terms,­ because­ the­ implementation­ of­ a­ polluter/user­ pays­ principle­ would,­ in­ some­ countries­ and­ sectors,­ exceed­ the­ level­ of­ affordability.­ Thus,­

investments­in­environmental­services­could­potentially­lead­to­increasing­risk­of­ poverty,­and­not­necessarily­to­the­improvement­of­well-­being­and­social­equity. ­ In­ this­ book­ we­ present­ wider­ view­ –­ in­ terms­ of­ geography,­ but­ also­ regarding­role­of­environmental­goods­and­services­(EGS)­in­economic­growth.­ We­analyse­to­what­extent­the­creation­of­new­green­jobs­can­contribute­to­the­ achievement­ of­ the­ post-­2015­ sustainable­ development­ goals­ (SDGs)­ and­ the­ implementation­of­a­new,­green­growth­model. ­ The­ starting­hypothesis­ is­ that­ creating­green­ jobs­ (by­ state­ investment­ and­ subsidies,­through­good­governance­and­with­strong­political­support)­is­not­sufficient­to­create­green­growth­and­sustainable­development. ­ Existing­analyses­show­that­green­growth­and­green­economy­provide­jobs­that­ are­ better­ and­more­ sustainable­ than­ordinary­ jobs.­The­ analysis­ provided­ in­ this­ book­is­from­different­a­perspective:­it­examines­to­what­extent­the­creation­of­green­ jobs­supports­overall­economic­development­ (as­opposed­ to­ the­creation­of­elitist­ jobs­and­a­new­marketing­niche­that­may­widen­the­gap­between­rich­and­poor). ­ In­ order­ to­ do­ so,­ general­ conceptual­ frameworks­ for­ green­ jobs,­ green­ economy, green growth and green policy are presented, as well as their implementation­in­nine­countries­selected­from­among­the­G20­(Group­of­Twenty).3