ABSTRACT
IVNBOQSJNBUFT"QQBSFOUMZUIFZXFSFOPUQSFTFOUBNPOHIVNBOTVOUJMUIFBEPQUJPOPG BHSJDVMUVSFଙNJMMFOOJBBHP BMMPXJOHDPNNVOJUJFTUPHSPXTPMBSHFUIBUNFNCFSTEJEOPU LOPXPSJOUFSBDUXJUIBMMPUIFSTBTJOEJWJEVBMT BTJUVBUJPOUIBUBMMPXFE PSFODPVSBHFE OFXIJFSBSDIJDBMBSSBOHFNFOUTUPFNFSHFUIPVHIDVMUVSBMQSPDFTTFT
%PNJOBODF PSTUBUVT IJFSBSDIJFTBSFBSFMJBCMFGFBUVSFPGQSJNBUFTPDJFUJFT5PBWPJEBO PWFSMZTJNQMFQJDUVSFPGUIFTFTUSVDUVSFT TFWFSBMRVBMJėDBUJPOTBSFOFFEFE4UBUVTSBOL NBZCFQFSTJTUFOUMZSFMFWBOUJOTQFDJFTXJUIGBJSMZQFSNBOFOUHSPVQT PSPOMZPDDBTJPOBMMZ SFMFWBOUGPSBOJNBMTUIBUGPSBHFBMPOF3BOLJOHTBSFVTVBMMZCVUOPUOFDFTTBSJMZUSBOTJ UJWFĉFSFMBUJWFTUBUVTPGUXPJOEJWJEVBMTNBZEFQFOE JOQBSU POUIFQSPYJNJUZPGBMMJFT 4PNFUJNFTUIFIJHIFTUSBOLJOHQPTJUJPOJTTIBSFECZBDPBMJUJPOPGUXPPSUISFFBOJNBMT *UJTPěFOFBTJFSUPJEFOUJGZBNBMFSBOLJOHUIBOBGFNBMFSBOLJOH3BOLJOHTBSFVTVBMMZ MFTTDMFBSJOUIFXJMEUIBOJODBQUJWFDPMPOJFTXIFSFBOJNBMTBSFGPSDFEJOUPDMPTFDPOUBDU "MTP TPNFTQFDJFTTJNQMZTIPXMFTTPWFSUTUBUVTCFIBWJPSUIBOPUIFST BOETUBUVTSBOLJOH NBZCFDPNFQSPNJOFOUPOMZEVSJOHUIFCSFFEJOHTFBTPOPSJOQFSJPETPGGPPETDBSDJUZ (JWFOUIFTFRVBMJėDBUJPOT JUJTTUJMMDMFBSUIBUUIFSFJTBHFOFSBMQSJNBUFQBĨFSOPGGBJSMZ DPOTJTUFOUSBOLPSEFSJOHXJUISFTQFDUUPJOĚVFODF QPXFS BOEWBMVFEQSFSPHBUJWFT
"NPOHIVNBOT GBDFUPGBDFTUBUVT EPNJOBODF IJFSBSDIJFTIBWFDPSPMMBSZGFBUVSFT MPOHSFDPHOJ[FEJODMBTTJDBMTPDJBMQTZDIPMPHZ)FSF*CSJFĚZFOVNFSBUFėWFDPSPMMBSJFT UIBUXFOPXLOPXBSFBMTPGPVOEBNPOHOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT BUMFBTUUIPTFFWPMVUJPO BSJMZDMPTFTUUPVT BOEUIFSFGPSFQMBVTJCMZIBWJOHBOFWPMWFECBTJT 4FF.B[VSGPS BOFYUFOEFEUSFBUNFOU
An individual’s rank depends partly on extrinsic attributes that are not obviously prerequisites for status in the groupĉVT BQFSTPONBZIBWFIJHITUBUVT JO UIF TNBMMHSPVQTJNQMZCZWJSUVFPGCFJOHPMEFS PSNBMF PSDPNJOHGSPNBXFBMUIZ GBNJMZãGFBUVSFT#FSHFSBOEIJTDPMMFBHVFTMBCFMFEiEJĎVTFTUBUVTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTu #FSHFS $PIFO BOE;FMEJUDI 4FYBOEBHFBSFSFMJBCMFTUBUVTEFUFSNJOBOUT JOOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT UPP CVUJUTFFNTJOBQQSPQSJBUFUPDPOTJEFSUIFNFYUSJOTJD BĨSJCVUFT BTXFEPJOIVNBOT TJODFUIFZBSFDMFBSMZDPSSFMBUFEXJUITUSFOHUI TJ[F FYQFSJFODF BOEQFSIBQTSFMFWBOUIPSNPOBMEJĎFSFODFT.PSFSFMFWBOUJTUIF UFOEFODZ LOPXOJOTFWFSBMQSJNBUFTQFDJFT GPSBOBOJNBMTTUBUVTUPCFJOĚVFODFE JGOPUGVMMZEFUFSNJOFECZUIFSBOLPGJUTNPUIFS#SPBEFSGBNJMZDPOOFDUJPOTIBWF TJNJMBSJOĚVFODF5SPPQTPG0ME8PSMENPOLFZTTVDIBTCBCPPOT NBDBRVFT BOE WFSWFUTBSFDPNQPTFEPGEJĎFSFOUNBUSJMJOFBMGBNJMJFT FBDIBSSBOHFEJOBTUBCMF MJOFBSEPNJOBODFIJFSBSDIZ"MMGFNBMFTPGPOFNBUSJMJOFPVUSBOLBMMGFNBMFTPG BOPUIFS'FNBMFCBCPPOTSFDPHOJ[FUIBUBSFWFSTBMJOUIFTUBUVTPGUXPNBUSJMJOFT BĎFDUTUIFJSPXOTUBUVT #FSHNBOFUBM
Over the long run, group members interact more with others of similar rank (“nearpeers”) than with members of dissimilar rank."NPOHOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT JOUFSBDUJPOVTVBMMZPDDVSTXJUIJOBHFTFYDBUFHPSJFT FYDFQUJOHTFYVBMBOENPUIFSm PĎTQSJOHSFMBUJPOT 4JODFNBMFTVTVBMMZEPNJOBUFGFNBMFT BOEBEVMUTEPNJOBUF KVWFOJMFT UIFFĎFDUJTUPDPODFOUSBUFJOUFSBDUJPOBNPOHOFBSQFFST8JUIJOBHFTFY DBUFHPSJFT NPOLFZTBOEDIJNQBO[FFTPěFOGPSNDPBMJUJPOT UIFJSEFDJTJPOTUP HJWFPSXJUIESBXTVQQPSUTFFNJOHMZDBMDVMBUFEUPFBSOFOIBODFETUBUVT EF8BBM 5BCVMBUJPOTPGQBJSXJTFJOUFSBDUJPOTBNPOHNPOLFZTBOEBQFTTIPXNPSF JOUFSBDUJPOXJUIOFBSQFFSTUIBOXPVMECFFYQFDUFECZDIBODF .B[VS
High-ranked members-particularly the leaders-perform service and control functions for other members and for the group as a whole.-FBEFSTPGCBCPPOBOE NBDBRVFUSPPQTBSFJOUIFGPSFGSPOUEVSJOHJOUFSUSPPQDPNCBUPSJOEFGFOTFBHBJOTU BQSFEBUPS8IFOBEJTQVUFCSFBLTPVUCFUXFFOUSPPQNFNCFST UIFMFBEFSNBZ TUPQJUXJUIBUISFBU BOEXJMMQSPUFDUBNPUIFSXJUIBOJOGBOUXIPJTUISFBUFOFE CZBOPUIFSBOJNBM)JHISBOLJOHDIJNQBO[FFTTPNFUJNFTBEPQUBDPOUSPMSPMF CSFBLJOHVQėHIUTPSTZTUFNBUJDBMMZQSPUFDUJOHUIFXFBLBHBJOTUUIFTUSPOH EF 8BBM
Low-ranked members appear more nervous than high-ranked members; high-ranked members can manipulate the stress experienced by-and thereby the performance of-low-ranked members.&BSMZ BDDPVOUTPGNBDBRVFCFIBWJPSPěFOEFTDSJCF MPXSBOLJOHNFNCFSTPGBTUBCMFIJFSBSDIZBTiOFSWPVT JOTFDVSFuPSiDPXFSJOHu FH 4PVUIXJDL *OIVNBOHSPVQTPSHBOHT UIFDPPMDPOėEFODFPGMFBEFST WFSTVTUIFUJNJEJUZPGMPXFTUSBOLFENFNCFSTIBTCFDPNFBDMJDIÊ
Humans and apes usually establish and maintain status rank without physical fights, aggressive threats, or overt gestures of submission.%JTQMBZTPGEPNJOBODFNVTUCF WJFXFEXJUIJOUIFCSPBEFSDPOUFYUPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO-PXFSQSJNBUFTBSFMJNJUFE SFQFUJUJWF BOETUFSFPUZQJD JO UIFJSEJTQMBZTIJHIFSQSJNBUFTBSFNPSFĚFYJCMF VTJOHEJWFSTFBOEOPWFMGPSNTPGFYQSFTTJPO"QFTBSFDBQBCMFPGWJPMFOUEPNJOBODF EJTQMBZT CVUUIFTFBSFJOGSFRVFOU%VSJOHIFSQJPOFFSJOHZFBSTPGTUVEZJOHDIJNQT JOUIFXJME +BOF(PPEBMMGPVOEIFSTVCKFDUTBQQBSFOUMZTPVODPNQFUJUJWFUIBUTIF DPVMEOPUBUėSTUEJTDFSOUIFJSEPNJOBODFSFMBUJPOTIJQTi)PXFWFS XIFOSFHVMBS PCTFSWBUJPOTCFDBNFQPTTJCMFPOUIFJOUFSBDUJPOTCFUXFFOUIFWBSJPVTJOEJWJEVBMT JUHSBEVBMMZCFDBNFFWJEFOUUIBUUIFTPDJBMTUBUVTPGFBDIDIJNQBO[FFXBTGBJSMZ XFMMEFėOFEJOSFMBUJPOUPFBDIPUIFSJOEJWJEVBMu WBO-BXJDL(PPEBMM .PTUIVNBOBEVMUTBSFSBSFMZ JGFWFS WJPMFOUJOGBDFUPGBDFDPNQFUJUJPOGPSTUBUVT
ĉFTFTUBUVTDPSPMMBSJFT UIPVHIUCZFBSMZTPDJBMQTZDIPMPHJTUTBOETPDJPMPHJTUTUPCF VOJRVFMZIVNBO BSFJOGBDUDPNNPOBNPOHQSJNBUFT FTQFDJBMMZJOUIPTFNPTUMJLFVT QIZTJDBMMZĉVT XFIBWFBQSJNBGBDJFDBTFUIBUTUBUVTSFMBUFECFIBWJPSTFWPMWFEBMPOH XJUIPVSQIZTJDBMGPSN BOEUIBUUIFZNJHIUCFFYQMBJOFEQSPYJNBUFMZCZOFVSPQIZTJ PMPHJDBMNFDIBOJTNT
STATUS SIGNS
&WFSZJOEJWJEVBMQSJNBUFIBTDFSUBJOPCTFSWBCMFsigns PSsignalsã*VTFUIFUFSNTJOUFS DIBOHFBCMZ UIBUTVHHFTUIJTPSIFSTPDJBMTUBUVTJT PSPVHIUUPCF IJHIPSMPXĉPTF EJTQMBZJOHIJHITUBUVTTJHOTBSFOPUHVBSBOUFFEUPIPMEDPSSFTQPOEJOHMZIJHISBOL JO UIFJSHSPVQTTUBUVTIJFSBSDIZ CVUJGXFLOPXBOJOEJWJEVBMTTJHOTXFDBONBLFBCFĨFS UIBOSBOEPNHVFTTBCPVUIJTPSIFSBDUVBMTUBUVT
4PNFTUBUVTTJHOTBSFMJNJUFEUPBQBSUJDVMBSTQFDJFT TVDIBTUIFTJMWFSIBJSPOUIFCBDL PGBEPNJOBOUNBMFHPSJMMB0UIFSTBSFTJNJMBSBDSPTTQSJNBUFTQFDJFT'PSFYBNQMF MBSHF TJ[F QIZTJDBMTUSFOHUI WJHPS HPPEIFBMUI CFJOHBEVMU WTCFJOHKVWFOJMF CFJOHNBMF BOE BNPOHUIFIJHIFSQSJNBUFT IBWJOHBIJHISBOLFENPUIFSBSFBMMTJHOTBTTPDJBUFE XJUIIJHITUBUVT XIJMFUIFJSPQQPTJUFTTVHHFTU MPXTUBUVTĉFSBOHFBOEĚFYJCJMJUZPG TUBUVTTJHOTBSFMFBTUBNPOHUIFMPXFSQSJNBUFT QSPTJNJBOT JODSFBTFBNPOHNPOLFZT BSFNPSFTPJOBQFTXJUIUIFJSQSPUPDVMUVSFT BOEBSFNPTUĚFYJCMFBNPOHIVNBOTXJUI GVMMDVMUVSFT8FBSJOHFYQFOTJWFBOEGBTIJPOBCMFDMPUIJOHJTBTJHOBMPGIJHITUBUVTBNPOH IVNBOT"CFBVUJGVMXJGF EFTJSBCMFUPPUIFSNFO PSPOFXJUIBSJDIEPXSZ HJWFTQSFTUJHF UPIFSIVTCBOEBSJDIPSQPXFSGVMIVTCBOEPSQSPUFDUPSFMFWBUFTBXPNBOTSBOL
"NPOHIVNBOT UIFQSFTUJHFPOFIPMETJOUIFMBSHFSTPDJFUZãQFSIBQTBTBSFQSFTFOUB UJWFPGiMFHJUJNBUFuPSiPđDJBMuBVUIPSJUZ PSCZWJSUVFPGPDDVQBUJPO XFBMUI FEVDBUJPO PS GBNJMZ MJOFBHFãDBSSJFTPWFS JOUP GBDFUPGBDF JOUFSBDUJPO BMUIPVHI JUNBZIBWFOP SFMFWBODFJOUIBUDPOUFYU"TVSHFPOBOEBQMVNCFS NFFUJOHDBTVBMMZPVUTJEFUIFJSQSPGFT TJPOBMSPMFT BSFMJLFMZUPSBOLUIFNTFMWFTTPUIBUUIFQMVNCFSEFGFSTUPUIFTVSHFPO FWFO UIPVHINFEJDBMTLJMMTBSFJSSFMFWBOUUPUIFTJUVBUJPO *GUIFUPJMFUJTĚPPEJOH UIFQMVNCFS XJMMFOKPZBUFNQPSBSJMZFMFWBUFETUBUVT "GBNPVTQFSTPO MJLFBWJTJCMZXFBMUIZPOF DBO VTVBMMZEPNJOBUFBOJOUJNBUFTPDJBMHBUIFSJOH
*UJTVTFGVMUPEJWJEFTUBUVTTJHOTJOUPUXPDBUFHPSJFTconstantTJHOBMTUIBUJOEJWJEVBMT EJTQMBZQFSTJTUFOUMZXIFUIFSUIFZXBOUUPPSOPU FH TJ[F TFY BHF BOEcontrollable sig OBMTUIBUJOEJWJEVBMTDBORVJDLMZDIBOHFCZUIFJSPXO DPOTDJPVTPSVODPOTDJPVT FĎPSUT "NPOHDPOUSPMMBCMFTUBUVTTJHOBMTBSFCPEZQPTUVSFT GBDJBMFYQSFTTJPOT EJSFDUTUBSJOHPS FZFBWFSTJPO BEWBODJOHUPXBSEPSSFUSFBUJOHGSPNBOPUIFSJOEJWJEVBM BOESFMBYFEBOE DPOėEFOUEFNFBOPSWFSTVTOFSWPVTėEHFUJOH HSPXMJOH HSJOOJOH PSDSZJOH"NPOH IVNBOT MBOHVBHFDBSSJFTNBOZPG UIFTFDPOUSPMMBCMF TJHOBMTFJUIFS JO UPOF TFNBOUJD DPOUFOU PSOPOWFSCBMHFTUVSFTUIBUBDDPNQBOZTQFFDI*UFNTPGESFTT DPTNFUJDT BOE BDDFTTPSJFTBMTPTFSWFIVNBOTBTDPOUSPMMBCMFTUBUVTTJHOT
'BDJBM BQQFBSBODFBOE GBDJBMHFTUVSFTBSFBNPOH UIFNPTU JNQSFTTJWF TUBUVT TJHOT JO IJHIFSQSJNBUFT FTQFDJBMMZBNPOHUIFBQFTBOEIVNBOTJOXIPNGBDJBMNVTDVMBUVSFJT NPTUĚFYJCMF TVCUMF BOEFYQSFTTJWF0VSFZFT CSPXT BOENPVUIBSFDSJUJDBMGFBUVSFTGPS RVJDLMZBMUFSJOHWJTJCMFEFNFBOPS BOEUIFJSNBOJQVMBUJPODBOCMBUBOUMZPSTVCUMZDIBOHF UIFNFBOJOHSFBEJOUPBGBDJBMTJHOBM4VCKFDUTTIPXOQPSUSBJUTQPTFEXJUIEJĎFSJOHFZF CSPXQPTJUJPOT SBJTFEPSMPXFSFE PSXJUIEJĎFSJOHNPVUIQPTJUJPOT TNJMJOHPSOFVUSBM BOEBTLFEUPKVEHFXIJDIJTNPSFEPNJOBOU JF XIJDIJTNPSFSFTQFDUFE NPSFMJLFMZ UPUFMMPUIFSTXIBUUPEP NPSFMFBEFSMJLF UFOEUPDIPPTFQPSUSBJUTXJUIMPXFSFECSPXT BOEVOTNJMJOHNPVUIT ,FBUJOH .B[VS BOE4FHBMM ĉFSFBEFSNBZFBTJMZTFFUIJT QFSDFQUVBMEJĎFSFODFEVFUPFZFCSPXQPTJUJPOJODBSUPPOGBDFT 'JHVSFଙ
"QBSUGSPNDPOUSPMMBCMFHFTUVSFT DFSUBJOGBDFTTJNQMZMPPLNPSFEPNJOBOUUIBOPUI FST QFSDFQUJPOTUIBUBSFDPOTUBOUBDSPTTEJWFSTFDVMUVSFT ,FBUJOHFUBM 6MSJDI .VFMMFSBOE*XPOEFSFEJGUIFQFSDFQUJPOPGEPNJOBODFDPOWFZFECZZFBSCPPLQPSUSBJUT
PGUIF8FTU1PJOU$MBTTPGIBEBOZFĎFDUPOUIFJSTVCTFRVFOUDBSFFSTJOUIF6OJUFE 4UBUFTNJMJUBSZ .VFMMFSBOE.B[VS +VEHFTCMJOEUPUIFQVSQPTFPGPVSTUVEZXFSF BTLFEUPSBOLDBEFUQPSUSBJUTPOBTFWFOQPJOUTDBMFPGEPNJOBODFTVCNJTTJWFOFTT ଙ WFSZTVCNJTTJWF ଙWFSZEPNJOBOU 'JHVSFଙTIPXT GPVSDBEFUTPGWBSZJOH GBDJBM EPNJOBODF BOEGPSNBMQPSUSBJUTPGUIFTBNFNFOBěFSBMMIBEBDIJFWFEUIFSBOLPGHFOFSBM
"MMDBEFUTFOUFSFE8FTU1PJOUBTVOEJĎFSFOUJBUFEQMFCFTĉFėSTUUJNFUIFZXFSFHJWFO SBOLTXBTJOKVOJPSZFBSXIFOOFBSMZIBMGXFSFFMFWBUFEUPDPSQPSBM UIFSFTUSFNBJOJOH QSJWBUFT"TTFOJPSTUIFZXFSFSBOLFEBHBJO XJUIPOFRVBSUFSPGUIFDMBTTOBNFEDBEFU PđDFSTBOEUIFSFTUTFSHFBOUT"UHSBEVBUJPOFWFSZPOFSFDFJWFEUIFSBOLPGTFDPOEMJFV UFOBOU#Z OFBSMZFWFSZPOFSFNBJOJOHPOBDUJWFEVUZIBECFFOQSPNPUFEUPNBKPS %VSJOHUIFFBSMZT SPVHIMZUISFFRVBSUFSTPGUIFTFNFOXFSFJOWJUFEUPTQFOEBO BDBEFNJDZFBSBUUIFBSNZT$PNNBOEBOE(FOFSBM4UBĎ$PMMFHFGPSBEEJUJPOBMUSBJOJOH ĉJTXBTBDSJUJDBMCSBODIQPJOUCFDBVTFNFOXIPEJEOPUBĨFOEUIJTDPMMFHFXFSFBMNPTU DFSUBJOUPBEWBODFOPIJHIFSUIBOMJFVUFOBOUDPMPOFM(SBEVBUJPOGSPN4UBĎ$PMMFHFJT BOFTTFOUJBMCVUOPUTVđDJFOUSFRVJSFNFOUGPSBOJOWJUBUJPOUPBXBSDPMMFHF UIFTFDPOE DSVDJBMCSBODIQPJOU-FTTUIBOIBMGPGUIFHSBEVBUFTGSPN4UBĎ$PMMFHFXFSFBENJĨFEUP BXBSDPMMFHFUPSFDFJWFUSBJOJOHBUUIFMFWFMPGEJWJTJPODPNNBOE
%JEMPPLTFWFSBĎFDUQSPNPUJPO "U8FTU1PJOUUIFZEJE*OKVOJPSZFBS DBEFUTXJUIUIF NPTUEPNJOBOUMPPLJOHGBDFTXFSFUXJDFBTMJLFMZUPNBLFDPSQPSBMBTUIPTFXJUIUIFMFBTU EPNJOBOUMPPLJOHGBDFT*OTFOJPSZFBSUIFQSPNPUJPOSBUFPGUIFNPTUEPNJOBOUMPPLJOH NFOXBTėWFUJNFTUIBUPGUIFJSMFBTUEPNJOBOUMPPLJOHDMBTTNBUFT
"ěFS8FTU1PJOUUIFEZOBNJDTPGSBOLBĨBJONFOUDIBOHFE'BDJBMEPNJOBODFEJE OPUQSFEJDUQSPNPUJPOUPNBKPSPSMJFVUFOBOUDPMPOFM PSTFMFDUJPOUPTUBĎPSXBSDPMMFHFT
OPSEJE JUQSFEJDUUIFSBQJEJUZPGUIFTFBEWBODFNFOUT8IBUEJEDPVOUXBTUIFSBUFPG BEWBODFTPNFNFOXFSFPOBGBTUUSBDL SBDJOHUISPVHITVDDFTTJWFQSPNPUJPOTBIFBEPG UIFJSDMBTTNBUFT CVUUIFTFNFOEJEOPUIBWFFTQFDJBMMZEPNJOBOUGBDFT1SPNPUJPOTJO NJEDBSFFSBSFEFDJEFEJNQFSTPOBMMZCZCPBSETPGPđDFSTXIPEPOPULOPXUIFDBOEJEBUFT CVUMPPLBUUIFJSEPTTJFST
$PMPOFMTXIPFOUFSBXBSDPMMFHFNBLFVQUIFQPPMGSPNXIJDIHFOFSBMTBSFESBXO /FBSMZFWFSZPOFXIPSFBDIFTUIJTTUBHFIBTBOFYDFMMFOUSFDPSE TPQFSTPOOFMėMFTEPOPU EJĎFSFOUJBUFWFSZXFMMĉFQPPMJTSFMBUJWFMZTNBMM BCPVUଙNFOGPSUIF$MBTTPG "UUIJTMFWFMJOUIFIJFSBSDIZ TPNFPOFPOUIFQSPNPUJPOCPBSEBMNPTUDFSUBJOMZLOPXT FBDIDBOEJEBUFQFSTPOBMMZBOEXPVMEIBWFIFBSEPGPUIFSTCZSFQVUBUJPOPSUISPVHIBEWJDF GSPNNFOUPSTBOEDPMMFBHVFT1SPNPUJPOTBUUIJTTUBHFBSFTJNJMBSUPUIFTFMFDUJPOPGDBEFU PđDFSTCBDLBU8FTU1PJOUJOUIFTFOTFUIBUUIPTFNBLJOHUIFTFMFDUJPOLOPXUIFNFOBT JOEJWJEVBMTSBUIFSUIBOGSPNJNQFSTPOBMSFDPSETĉFSFGPSF JUJTOPUTVSQSJTJOHUIBUUIF DSJUFSJBGPSTFMFDUJPOUPUIFIJHIFTUSBOLTBSFBHBJOIJHIMZQFSTPOBM JODMVEJOHXIFUIFS UIFNBOlooksMJLFBMFBEFS'PSXBSDPMMFHFHSBEVBUFT UIFOVNCFSPGQSPNPUJPOTCFZPOE DPMPOFMJODSFBTFETJHOJėDBOUMZXJUIGBDJBMEPNJOBODFBTNFBTVSFEGSPNDBEFUQPSUSBJUT UBLFOUXFOUZQMVTZFBSTFBSMJFS.FOXJUIEPNJOBOUGBDFTIBEBOBEWBOUBHFJOQSPNPUJPO UPHFOFSBM .VFMMFSBOE.B[VS
"RVFTUJPOUIBUJOFWJUBCMZBSJTFTJT XIBUEPEPNJOBOUGBDFTMPPLMJLF &WFSZPOFLOPXT CFDBVTFBOZPOFDBOTPSUQPSUSBJUTPOUIBUCBTJT CVUGBDJBMEPNJOBODFJTBHFTUBMUDPODFQU EJđDVMUUPEFTDSJCFJOTJNQMFUFSNTĉFDPNQVUFSUFDIOJRVFPGNPSQIJOHTFWFSBMQPS USBJUTUPHFUIFS JOFTTFODFCMFOEJOHUIFNJOUPPOFiBWFSBHFuGBDF IBTQSPWJEFESFNBSLBCMF JOTJHIUTJOUPPVSQFSDFQUJPOTPGPUIFST GPSFYBNQMF TIPXJOHUIBUBNPSQIPGNBOZZPVOH XPNFOTGBDFTJTNPSFBĨSBDUJWFUIBONPTUPGUIFJOEJWJEVBMGBDFT 1FSSFĨ 6TJOH UIFTBNFUFDIOJRVF 3PCFSU8BSEBOE3PCJO,SBNFSPG#BOHPS6OJWFSTJUZJOUIF6OJUFE ,JOHEPNQSPEVDFEPOFNPSQIFEQPSUSBJUGSPNTFWFOPGPVSEPNJOBOUMPPLJOHDBEFUT BOEBOPUIFSNPSQIFEQPSUSBJUGSPNTFWFOPGPVSTVCNJTTJWFMPPLJOHDBEFUTĉFTFBSF TIPXOTJEFCZTJEFJO'JHVSFଙ
3FBEFSTNBZ DPNQBSF UIF UXPNPSQIT KVEHJOHXIJDI MPPLTNPSFEPNJOBOUPS MFBEFSMJLF BOEUIFOėOEUIFVTVBMBOTXFSBUUIFFOEPGUIJTQBSBHSBQI4PNFSFTFBSDI FSTTVHHFTUUIBUBIJHIFSSBUJPPGGBDJBMXJEUIUPIFJHIU '85) BDDPVOUTGPSNVDIPG UIFQFSDFQUJPOPGEPNJOBOUSBUIFSUIBOTVCNJTTJWFGBDFT FH $BSSÊ .D$PSNJDL BOE .POEMPDI-FGFWSFBOE-FXJT CVUJOUIJTQBSUJDVMBSDBTF'85) BTLJOEMZ NFBTVSFECZ+VTUJO$BSSÊ JTGPSCPUINPSQIT ĉFMFěNPSQIJTSFMJBCMZKVEHFEUP MPPLNPSFMJLFBMFBEFS
ALLOCATING RANKS
%PNJOBODFIJFSBSDIJFT PODFTFU BSFGBJSMZTUBCMF#VUXIFOBOFXHSPVQGPSNT UIFSFNVTU CFBOJOJUJBMBMMPDBUJPOPGSBOLT BOEJOFTUBCMJTIFEHSPVQTTPNFJOEJWJEVBMTPDDBTJPOBMMZ BMUFSUIFJSQPTJUJPOT)PXBSFUIFTFJOJUJBMSBOLJOHT BOEMBUFSDIBOHFTJOSBOL EFUFSNJOFE ĉFTIPSUBOTXFSJTUIBUSBOLTBSFBMMPDBUFEFJUIFScooperatively CZDPOTFOTVTPGUIPTF JOWPMWFE PScompetitively XIFOUIFSFJTEJTBHSFFNFOUPWFSXIPTIPVMECFTVQFSJPS
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