ABSTRACT
The ability of modern states to penetrate one another’s territory and to initiate direct and massive attacks upon civilian populations, industrial facilities, and military bases has provoked an intensive search for effective countermeasures. However, despite the rapid and radical evolution of military technology, the range of potential defensive responses has remained relatively limited. If deterrence should fail, there are essentially three major methods or techniques for reducing the overall impact of an attack: dispersion, evacuation, and shelter.
