ABSTRACT
Anxiety is an intense, unwelcome emotion and a common experience for language learners. The understanding of the role of anxiety in language learning and production has changed over the years and now features a combination of specialized and dynamic concepts where anxiety is viewed both as a multidimensional emotional reaction and a cause of potential disruptions in learning. The chapter reviews the empirical evidence describing the relationship between anxiety and language learning outcomes, focusing on achievement, cognitive processing, and specific language-skill areas (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, and writing). We examine research on the relation of language anxiety to other key individual difference variables including personality, gender, motivation, and other emotions. The available evidence is built on methods that can be collected into three streams: correlational, experimental, and dynamic. The most frequently used methods have been correlational, with meta-analyses showing consistent negative correlations between language anxiety measures (including the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, FLCAS) and a variety of other factors and learning outcomes. We emphasize the need to employ a greater diversity of methods, including experimental and dynamic approaches. The chapter concludes by applying what we have learned so far about language anxiety and suggesting possible future research directions.
